The Weimar Constitution of 1919 was intended to replace the German government as ruled by the Kaiser before the end of World War II, and as such featured universal suffrage, wide-ranging checks and balances, and a mix of parliamentary and presidential systems. The wide-ranging, democratic reforms in the Weimar Constitution created a flourishing republic in Germany in the 1920s and the early 1930s; however, the lack of thresholds for Parliamentary representation gave legitimacy to many different ideologies and political parties, while its checks and balances were placed so as to give individuals like the Chancellor and the President expansive powers. These parts of the Weimar Constitution enabled Adolph Hitler and the National Socialists to take power in Germany by 1933.

Queen Elizabeth I of England died in 1603 without any children to succeed her. The issue of succession was one that worried many during Elizabeth’s lifetime, with some assuming that James VI of Scotland, the son of Elizabeth’s cousin, would become king. A lot of people also feared the possibility of war breaking out over the selection of the next monarch, which was extremely likely. Fortunately, many advisers and others within government had anticipated that possibility and contacted James to convey that he should come to England at once upon Elizabeth’s death. When Elizabeth died, James rode quickly to London where he was proclaimed king and became King James I of England, thus uniting the two monarchies. The countries would continue to be separate states until full unification in 1707, but that was only possible through the ascension of James.

The Battle of Bosworth Field took place on August 22, 1485, and ended when the Lancastrian Henry Tudor defeated the Yorkist King Richard III to become King Henry VII of England. This event ended the Wars of the Roses, a century-long civil war that ripped England apart along the rival lines of the Houses of York and Lancaster. Henry took the throne and married the princess Elizabeth of York, which ended the conflict and brought stability to England for the first time in a century.

The nations of Western Europe face a significant problem in the twenty-first century because declining birth rates and higher life expectancy have led to an aging population. This will mean that there will soon be a great many more people claiming retirement benefits and not contributing directly to the productive capabilities of the nation than at any other time in European history. Essentially, there may be too few people in the workforce to support the needs of the population.

The environmental movement emerged in Europe in the 1970s and was quickly politicized in many countries. In most European countries, the environmental parties, often called “Green Parties,” have had little electoral impact. But, in first Belgium and then Germany, they quickly emerged as a significant political force and have participated in numerous coalition governments.

The Polish Solidarity movement was founded in 1980 and was the first trade union to operate independently of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact. It was wildly popular in Poland in the 1980s and formed the first Polish government after independence from the Soviet Union.

All of these countries are members of the European Union except for Norway. Norway, although not a participant of the European Union, is a member of the European Economic Area (EEA), which allows Norway to be part of Europe’s single market.

When the Maastricht Treaty was signed in 1991, formally codifying the European Union, it is estimated that illegal immigration into the countries that make up the European Union was less than one-hundred thousand individuals per year. In recent years, by some estimates, more than a million people arrive illegally into the European Union each year. Although the exact numbers are not agreed upon, what is certain is that the number of illegal immigrants arriving in Europe each year has increased dramatically in the last two decades. This presents a significant challenge to the member countries of the European Union in the years to come.

The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was created in 1945, and contained Slavic, Balkan nations that had ethnic, religious, and cultural differences. In the late 1980s, these long-simmering problems boiled over, and the constituent nations sought greater autonomy from the Communist government and eventually to declare independence. From there, nationalist parties took over the local governments, with ethnically similar armies fighting wars that often bordered on genocide as the various nations established new boundaries and governments. Fighting continued until 2001, when the Republika Srpska army was fully disbanded.

Otto von Bismarck is credited with unifying the various Germanic states into one nation. He was appointed Minister of Prussia by Wilhelm I of Prussia in 1862, and he used that position to wield a great deal of power. One of his most famous tactics was engaging in wars with Austria, France, and Denmark in order to unify the various Germanic states behind a single cause and also to gain some territory. In 1871, von Bismarck's work culminated in the formation of the German Empire with Wilhelm the first as the Emperor and himself as chancellor. He held this post until 1890, when Wilhelm II became displeased with him. He initiated many reforms meant to create a strong unified state and is revered by German nationalists.