Unlike his predecessors, the chairman of the board believed in seeking advice from the rest of the board. The company was able to address many of the difficult problems under the chairman’s leadership, particular with a raft of new issues stemming from external forces. Remarkably, the successful company became even more successful on his watch.

The method of reasoning used in the above statement is best expressed as __________.

Andrew: We regulate oil and gas, car exhaust, pesticides, and chemicals because, while companies argue that they are necessary for economic growth, they cause environmental pollution that can be harmful to health.  Car alarms also cause environmental pollution in the form of loud noises, but we need cars (and alarms), so we should regulate them the way we do chemicals.

Alicia:  Oil and gas, car exhaust, pesticides, and chemicals harm physical health, while car alarms are just annoying. We do not need to regulate them the same way.

Alicia's response to Andrew's argument can best be characterized as: 

The government is considering a new round of massive government spending. The opposition party has firmly come out against this new policy. They have argued that an expansion of government spending would both increase the debt and possibly cause inflation. In spite of these arguments, the government should adopt a new round of government spending. The economy remains below its optimal level of output and interest rates are at an all-time low. Only an increase in government spending can reduce the unemployment rate and get people back to work.

The argument proceeds by arguing that

Basketball scout: Over the last 25 years, every professional basketball player who was at least 6 feet 6 inches tall could dunk a basketball. Maurice will begin his professional basketball career this coming year and his amatuer team lists him as 6 feet 7 inches tall. Thus, Maurice definitely will be able to dunk.

The basketball scout’s argument is most vulnerable to which one of the following objections?

Jim: My friends say I am putting my life in danger by snowboarding recklessly. But I have done some research, and apparently skiers have much lower accident rates than snowboarders. So, trading in my snowboard for a a pair of skis would lower my risk of having an accident.

Jim’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which of the following grounds?

The statement "all blue birds are birds" is true. Thus, by analogy, the statement "all suspected terrorists are terrorists" is also true.

The reasoning in the argument above is flawed because it fails to recognize that

Modern medicine has taken a turn for the worse. Doctors prescribe treatments that can cause serious side effects. The ailments that doctors treat have existed for many years. Yet, the treatments prescribed are novel and dangerous. Treatment side effects cause not only things like itchy eyes or upset stomachs, but rather, depression, heart failure, and damaged immune systems. Natural remedies are preferable because they have been used widely for thousands of years. Also, most natural remedies carry comparatively low risk of serious side effects.

The argument is most clearly flawed for which of the following reasons?

Groups that oppose action to reduce emission of gases that contribute to global warming have major incentives to deny the existence of global warming. Many of these groups are backed by wealthy individuals or corporations that have a lot to lose from a new regulatory regime governing greenhouse gas emissions. This makes it likely that these groups’ publications will contain inaccurate information or misrepresent scientific evidence about global warming.

This argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it:

History Student: A widely held historical view of the Battle of Fort Sumter at the outbreak of the American Civil War is that President Lincoln deployed a strategy of reinforcement without direct military provocation to enable the Union to blame the outbreak of war on the Confederacy. One renowned historian has recently staked a controversial position that there is not enough evidence to justify this theory. Therefore, the widely held view of the outbreak of the Civil War is false.

The reasoning above is most vulnerable to the criticism that it:

Computers have finally reached their maximum potential for processing information.  For fifty years, computer processing capabilities have steadily improved each year.  Although some years saw greater advancements than others, each year saw at least some progress.  That pattern was broken last year when computer processing capabilities failed to improve at all.

The argument is most vulnerable to which of the following criticisms?