Cell Structures and Organelles - Biology

Plant cells are very similar to animal cells, but receive energy from sunlight. As a result, they require chloroplasts in order to house the chlorophyll where photosynthesis takes place. Animal cells are incapable of photosynthesis, and do not contain chloroplasts.

The other listed structures are found in both animal and plant cells.

The nucleolus is a subdivision of the nucleus; thus, it is only found in eukaryotes. It is the site of ribosome assembly. The nucleolus is made of RNA and proteins.

Mitochondrial DNA is much smaller and simpler than nuclear DNA, meaning it does not need histones or introns. Mitochondrial DNA is also circular, like bacterial DNA, rather than linear like nuclear DNA. As the ovum is the only contributor of mitochondria to an offspring, all mDNA must therefore be inherited from the mother.

The mitochondria is responsible for making the energy for the cell by cellular respiration. It does this by taking the major breakdown products of glucose (pyruvate and NADH) and converting them into ATP by the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain. This is an oxygen-dependent process.

Lysosomes are specialized vesicles that bud off of the Golgi apparatus and house digestive enzymes within the cell. Lysosomes have only one outer membrane, made of a phospholipid bilayer, similar to the plasma membrane surrounding the cell.

In contrast, the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts all have two outer membranes. Each of these is made of a lipid bilayer, for a total of four layers of phospholipids around these structures.

Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain digestive enzymes which break down all four types of macromolecules. The mitochondria is responsible for synthesis of the majority of the cell's energy in the form of ATP. The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape and provides a "freeway" for transporting substances within the cell. Flagella are proteinaceous structures that aid in cell motility.

Nuclear pores are complex structures made up of proteins which allow movement of certain molecules into and out of the nucleus. Flagella are long tail-like projections found on some cells that function in cell motility. The rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes on it, which are the sites of protein synthesis. Lysosomes are organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes used to recycle/destroy macromolecules.

Prokaryotes have a single circular DNA molecule, and eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes. The four nucleotides for DNA are in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Ribosomes are composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. Their primary function is to bind mRNA and tRNA to build proteins. Ribosomes are the fundamental structure necessary for translation and protein formation.

The nucleus houses the DNA of the cell, the cytoskeleton and specialized proteins transport compounds within the cell, and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum breaks down toxic substances, such as alcohol.

A cell wall is a tough, and rigid layer of polysaccharides lying outside of the plasma membrane in plants, some fungi, and some protists. The cell wall provides these cells with structural support and protection. It also prevents over-expansion when water enters the cell. Animal cells lack a cell wall, and only have a plasma membrane.

The fluid-mosaic model for the cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipids with embedded proteins. The proteins do active transport in pumping molecules across the membrane. The phosphates are on the outside and the lipid chains are on the inside of the membrane.

The cell wall provides support and protection for the cell. Most are made from carbohydrate and protein. They are not made of phospholipids or lipids.

A double phospholipid bilayer membrane makes up the nuclear envelope. The outer layer of this nuclear envelope is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum, also known as cytoplasm's interior membrane system. The cell's plasma membrane, and the membranes surrounding various organelles (except the nucleus, and mitochondria which both have double phospholipid bilayers) are single phospholipid bilayers. Cell walls are found outside the plasma membrane of plant, bacterial, and fungal cells. Peptidoglycan is the main component of the cell walls of bacteria.

The mitochondria are the site for aerobic respiration in the cell. Both the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain are found in the mitochondria, while glycolysis (anaerobic metabolism) takes place in the cytoplasm. The Krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix, where pyruvate is used to generate NADH and FADH2. These molecules are then taken to the inner mitochondrial membrane, where the electron transport chain is located. The electron transport chain pushes protons into the intermembrane space, creating the proton gradient that fuels ATP synthesis.

Chloroplasts are an organelle that harbors large amounts of the green pigment chlorophyll. The chloroplast converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy through a process called photosynthesis. This takes place inside a system of membranous sacs called thylakoids within the chloroplast.

Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria all produce energy via photosynthesis. Plants and algae use chloroplasts, but cyanobacteria are prokaryotes and do not contain membrane-bound organelles. Cyanobacteria use internal thylakoid structures to perform photosynthesis.

Plasmids are circular pieces of DNA found in prokaryotes, and are not linked to photosynthesis. Guard cells are responsible for opening and closing stomata on the surface of plant leaves, and are also not involved in photosynthesis.

Mitochondria are unique organelles because they contain their own double-stranded DNA. The genes on these DNA molecules are always transmitted to the offspring from the mother. During development, the mitochondrial DNA from the sperm (the gamete from father) is destroyed in the embryo. Since all genes in the mitochondria are only inherited from the mother, we can conclude that this disease is maternally inherited. We also know that the genes must be found on double-stranded DNA. There are very small amounts of double-stranded RNA molecules inside mitochondria, but they don’t code for any known diseases.

Mitochondria are the site of Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation; however, they are not the site of glycolysis. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol. Mitochondria have two membranes: the inner and the outer membrane. The space between these two membranes is termed the intermembrane space. The mitochondrial matrix is inside the inner membrane and is the site of Krebs cycle. Scientists theorize that mitochondria and chloroplasts (from plants) were initially prokaryotic organisms that joined with another cell to form a symbiotic relationship, not a parasitic relationship. This theory is called the endosymbiotic theory and it explains the reasons why mitochondria contain DNA.

Mitochondria do have their own ribosomes, which produce unique mitochondrial proteins. Remember, however, that the mitochondria still utilize the normal proteins produced by the ribosomes in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and cytosol.

The question states that the person has consumed too much alcohol, which means that the body must detoxify the chemicals from alcohol. You are therefore looking for the organelle that participates in detoxification of chemicals. In addition to synthesizing lipids, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum plays an important role in detoxification of chemicals. This detoxification process occurs in the liver, which contains an abundance of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis, and mitochondria are the site of energy (ATP) production.

The cristae increase the surface area available within the cell. In order for oxidative phosphorylation of occur, certain proteins must be embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The fold in the membrane allow for a larger surface area, which in turn allows more of these proteins to be embedded. More proteins to create energy means more energy (ATP) for the cell.

Mitochondria and chloroplasts are plastids, and are thought to have arisen in eukaryotic cells via endosymbiosis. All the other options are true of mitochondria and chloroplasts.