Causation: 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments Practice Test

Secondary-source excerpt (embedded): In the 1820s, Spanish and Portuguese authority in the Americas weakened after Napoleonic invasions disrupted Iberian governance. Creole elites used the crisis to form local juntas, raise militias, and claim sovereignty, arguing that legitimate rule had collapsed at the center. The resulting wars of independence produced new republics, but also left many regions with fragile institutions and powerful militaries.

Which option best identifies a cause-and-effect relationship described in the excerpt?

A historian argues that the spread of Romantic nationalism in the early-to-mid 19th century—through literature, folklore collection, and patriotic commemorations—caused political movements to redefine legitimacy around shared language and culture rather than dynastic rule. Which development is most consistent with this cause-and-effect claim?