Systems Physiology - AP Biology
Card 0 of 7546
Which stomach cell type secretes gastrin?
Which stomach cell type secretes gastrin?
G cells secrete the hormone gastrin. Gastrin further stimulates stomach acid secretions via parietal (oxyntic) cells. Chief cells secrete pepsinogen, the inactive form of the enzyme pepsin, which degrades proteins. Goblet cells secrete mucous to protect the cells of the stomach from the acid.
G cells secrete the hormone gastrin. Gastrin further stimulates stomach acid secretions via parietal (oxyntic) cells. Chief cells secrete pepsinogen, the inactive form of the enzyme pepsin, which degrades proteins. Goblet cells secrete mucous to protect the cells of the stomach from the acid.
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Which of the following does not develop from the mesoderm?
Which of the following does not develop from the mesoderm?
The mesoderm is a primary germ layer that forms during gastrulation. The mesoderm develops into most of the organ systems of the human body, including the muscular system, circulatory system, and excretory system.
The mesoderm is a primary germ layer that forms during gastrulation. The mesoderm develops into most of the organ systems of the human body, including the muscular system, circulatory system, and excretory system.
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Which of the following best describes when a pregnancy is considered to be “full term”?
Which of the following best describes when a pregnancy is considered to be “full term”?
A woman is said to be “full term” when she is at 39 to 41 weeks of pregnancy. Medical intervention to induce labor during this time is not ideal.
A woman is said to be “full term” when she is at 39 to 41 weeks of pregnancy. Medical intervention to induce labor during this time is not ideal.
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Which of the following is established by the primitive streak during gastrula development?
Which of the following is established by the primitive streak during gastrula development?
The primitive streak is an arrangement of cells that forms during gastrula development. The location of the primitive streak establishes the left/right axes, cranial/caudal axes, and bilateral symmetry of the developing embryo.
The primitive streak is an arrangement of cells that forms during gastrula development. The location of the primitive streak establishes the left/right axes, cranial/caudal axes, and bilateral symmetry of the developing embryo.
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The process of ingression forms which of the following germ layers during gastrula development?
The process of ingression forms which of the following germ layers during gastrula development?
In gastrulation, the process of ingression forms the mesoderm. In this process, the epiblast ingresses at the primary streak into the area between the epiblast and hypoblast cell layers.
In gastrulation, the process of ingression forms the mesoderm. In this process, the epiblast ingresses at the primary streak into the area between the epiblast and hypoblast cell layers.
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During which of the following stages of embryonic development does the process of invagination occur?
During which of the following stages of embryonic development does the process of invagination occur?
Invagination is the infolding of the epiblast cell layer to form the endoderm germ layer. This process takes place during gastrulation.
Invagination is the infolding of the epiblast cell layer to form the endoderm germ layer. This process takes place during gastrulation.
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Which of the following structures is referred to as the “blastocoel”?
Which of the following structures is referred to as the “blastocoel”?
The “blastocoel” is a fluid-filled cavity in the blastocyst. It is enclosed by trophoblast cells.
The “blastocoel” is a fluid-filled cavity in the blastocyst. It is enclosed by trophoblast cells.
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Which of the following segments of the digestive system has the primary job of digesting food?
Which of the following segments of the digestive system has the primary job of digesting food?
The duodenum, in the small intestine, is a site of protein, carbohydrate, and fat digestion.
The jejunum is a site of protein and fat absorption. The ileum is a site of salt, vitamin, and excess molecule absorbtion. The colon is a segment of the large intestine for water and ion absortion. Each of these work to absorb different molecules, but do not significantly contribute to their digestion.
The duodenum, in the small intestine, is a site of protein, carbohydrate, and fat digestion.
The jejunum is a site of protein and fat absorption. The ileum is a site of salt, vitamin, and excess molecule absorbtion. The colon is a segment of the large intestine for water and ion absortion. Each of these work to absorb different molecules, but do not significantly contribute to their digestion.
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Which of the following statements describes the primary role of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules?
Which of the following statements describes the primary role of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules?
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules are found on virtually all cells in the body. They function in routine immune monitoring through presentation of short peptide fragments derived from degradation of intracellular proteins contained within the cell. The T-cell receptor on cytotoxic T-cells interacts with MHC class I, and if a foreign pathogen or peptide is presented, the cytotoxic T-cell becomes activated to kill infected cells. The same system also functions for detection of potential cancer cells.
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules are found on virtually all cells in the body. They function in routine immune monitoring through presentation of short peptide fragments derived from degradation of intracellular proteins contained within the cell. The T-cell receptor on cytotoxic T-cells interacts with MHC class I, and if a foreign pathogen or peptide is presented, the cytotoxic T-cell becomes activated to kill infected cells. The same system also functions for detection of potential cancer cells.
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What happens antibodies for a specific antigen when that antigen is presented in the body?
What happens antibodies for a specific antigen when that antigen is presented in the body?
The immune system is very adaptive. The body has many antibodies that will each recognize different antigens. If an antibody binds to an antigen, the antibody will be copied so that the body can quickly recognize the threat if it is exposed to the antigen a second time. This process is known as the adaptive immune response.
When an antigen is presented for a second time, antibodies to the antigen are released. These antibodies bind to the antigen, labelling it for attack by immune cells and preventing it from interacting the membrane proteins on the host cells.
The immune system is very adaptive. The body has many antibodies that will each recognize different antigens. If an antibody binds to an antigen, the antibody will be copied so that the body can quickly recognize the threat if it is exposed to the antigen a second time. This process is known as the adaptive immune response.
When an antigen is presented for a second time, antibodies to the antigen are released. These antibodies bind to the antigen, labelling it for attack by immune cells and preventing it from interacting the membrane proteins on the host cells.
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An antibody can be best classified as which of the following?
An antibody can be best classified as which of the following?
Antibodies are proteins created by the immune system in order to neutralize foreign objects. An antibody would not be classified as an enzyme because it does not catalyze chemical reactions. When a foreign pathogen enters the body, it will have foreign receptors on its surface. These foreign receptors are known as antigens. When a pathogen is destroyed, immune cells can carry a sample of the antigen to the T-cells for identification. The T-cells help activate B-cells that will synthesize an antibody against the particular antigen. The selected B-cells differentiate into plasma cells and secrete antibody proteins into the blood, which bind the antigens and label the pathogen as foreign. This label attracts other immune cells to attack and destroy the pathogen.
Antibodies are proteins created by the immune system in order to neutralize foreign objects. An antibody would not be classified as an enzyme because it does not catalyze chemical reactions. When a foreign pathogen enters the body, it will have foreign receptors on its surface. These foreign receptors are known as antigens. When a pathogen is destroyed, immune cells can carry a sample of the antigen to the T-cells for identification. The T-cells help activate B-cells that will synthesize an antibody against the particular antigen. The selected B-cells differentiate into plasma cells and secrete antibody proteins into the blood, which bind the antigens and label the pathogen as foreign. This label attracts other immune cells to attack and destroy the pathogen.
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Which of the following correctly describes the relationship between an antigen and an antibody?
Which of the following correctly describes the relationship between an antigen and an antibody?
Antibodies are continuously made in the body in different shapes and forms. They are then sent into the blood stream to test for the presence of compatible antigens. Each antibody can only bind to one antigen, and each antigen can only bind to one antibody. Think of them like a codon-anticodon pair; there is only one possibility for them to form a perfectly complementary pair. Once the correct antibody binds to an antigen, they are tagged and used to stimulate production of more antibodies. The antibodies are only capable of binding and tagging the antigens. Cytotoxic T-cells are then able to recognize antibody binding patterns and actually destroy the infected cell.
Antibodies are continuously made in the body in different shapes and forms. They are then sent into the blood stream to test for the presence of compatible antigens. Each antibody can only bind to one antigen, and each antigen can only bind to one antibody. Think of them like a codon-anticodon pair; there is only one possibility for them to form a perfectly complementary pair. Once the correct antibody binds to an antigen, they are tagged and used to stimulate production of more antibodies. The antibodies are only capable of binding and tagging the antigens. Cytotoxic T-cells are then able to recognize antibody binding patterns and actually destroy the infected cell.
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Major histocompatibility molecules (MHC) are critical for the functioning of the immune system. These proteins are utilized allow for communication between the immune system and the cells. MHC I are utilized to show which cells are in fact part of the body and which are foreign. MHC II are utilized to show the immune system when there is an intruder.
MHC I molecules are derived from chromosome 6. On chromosome 6, there is a specific gene that encodes for the molecule. On the gene, there are 3 locus (A, B, C) which allows for variability in the binding site of the MHC I molecule. The MHC gene is co-dominance and therefore adds to its diversity. During development, the gene is transcribed into MHC I molecules. However, some of these are broken down and react with a particular MHC I molecule. The reaction allows for the MHC I molecule to surface onto the cellular membrane and to self-identify the protein for the cytotoxic T-cell.
After translation, MHC II molecules are transported to the endosome. When a pathogen binds to the proper MHC II binding site, these molecules are then presented to T-Helper cells. In comparison, MHC I molecules interact with endogenous antigens whereas MHC II molecules interact with exogenous antigens.
Based on the passage, where is the interaction between the MHC I molecule and the particular antigen occur?
I. Endoplasmic reticulum
II. Endosome
III. Cytoplasm
Major histocompatibility molecules (MHC) are critical for the functioning of the immune system. These proteins are utilized allow for communication between the immune system and the cells. MHC I are utilized to show which cells are in fact part of the body and which are foreign. MHC II are utilized to show the immune system when there is an intruder.
MHC I molecules are derived from chromosome 6. On chromosome 6, there is a specific gene that encodes for the molecule. On the gene, there are 3 locus (A, B, C) which allows for variability in the binding site of the MHC I molecule. The MHC gene is co-dominance and therefore adds to its diversity. During development, the gene is transcribed into MHC I molecules. However, some of these are broken down and react with a particular MHC I molecule. The reaction allows for the MHC I molecule to surface onto the cellular membrane and to self-identify the protein for the cytotoxic T-cell.
After translation, MHC II molecules are transported to the endosome. When a pathogen binds to the proper MHC II binding site, these molecules are then presented to T-Helper cells. In comparison, MHC I molecules interact with endogenous antigens whereas MHC II molecules interact with exogenous antigens.
Based on the passage, where is the interaction between the MHC I molecule and the particular antigen occur?
I. Endoplasmic reticulum
II. Endosome
III. Cytoplasm
From the passage, the MHC I molecule's blueprint is on chromosome 6. Therefore, the DNA must have been transcribed in the nucleus then translated in the ribosome. These ribosomes are on the endoplasmic reticulum. While in the endoplasmic reticulum, some of these proteins are degraded and react with a particular MHC I molecule.
From the passage, the MHC I molecule's blueprint is on chromosome 6. Therefore, the DNA must have been transcribed in the nucleus then translated in the ribosome. These ribosomes are on the endoplasmic reticulum. While in the endoplasmic reticulum, some of these proteins are degraded and react with a particular MHC I molecule.
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Major histocompatibility molecules (MHC) are critical for the functioning of the immune system. These proteins are utilized allow for communication between the immune system and the cells. MHC I are utilized to show which cells are in fact part of the body and which are foreign. MHC II are utilized to show the immune system when there is an intruder.
MHC I molecules are derived from chromosome 6. On chromosome 6, there is a specific gene that encodes for the molecule. On the gene, there are 3 locus (A, B, C) which allows for variability in the binding site of the MHC I molecule. The MHC gene is co-dominance and therefore adds to its diversity. During development, the gene is transcribed into MHC I molecules. However, some of these are broken down and react with a particular MHC I molecule. The reaction allows for the MHC I molecule to surface onto the cellular membrane and to self-identify the protein for the cytotoxic T-cell.
After translation, MHC II molecules are transported to the endosome. When a pathogen binds to the proper MHC II binding site, these molecules are then presented to T-Helper cells. In comparison, MHC I molecules interact with endogenous antigens whereas MHC II molecules interact with exogenous antigens.
Based on the passage, where is the interaction between the MHC II molecule and the particular antigen occur?
I. Endoplasmic reticulum
II. Endosome
III. Cytoplasm
Major histocompatibility molecules (MHC) are critical for the functioning of the immune system. These proteins are utilized allow for communication between the immune system and the cells. MHC I are utilized to show which cells are in fact part of the body and which are foreign. MHC II are utilized to show the immune system when there is an intruder.
MHC I molecules are derived from chromosome 6. On chromosome 6, there is a specific gene that encodes for the molecule. On the gene, there are 3 locus (A, B, C) which allows for variability in the binding site of the MHC I molecule. The MHC gene is co-dominance and therefore adds to its diversity. During development, the gene is transcribed into MHC I molecules. However, some of these are broken down and react with a particular MHC I molecule. The reaction allows for the MHC I molecule to surface onto the cellular membrane and to self-identify the protein for the cytotoxic T-cell.
After translation, MHC II molecules are transported to the endosome. When a pathogen binds to the proper MHC II binding site, these molecules are then presented to T-Helper cells. In comparison, MHC I molecules interact with endogenous antigens whereas MHC II molecules interact with exogenous antigens.
Based on the passage, where is the interaction between the MHC II molecule and the particular antigen occur?
I. Endoplasmic reticulum
II. Endosome
III. Cytoplasm
According to the passage, after the MHC II molecules are fully synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum, they are transported to the endosome. Foreign molecules are transported into the cell where they are degraded in the endosome as well. From there, the degraded pathogen interact with the MHC II molecule.
According to the passage, after the MHC II molecules are fully synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum, they are transported to the endosome. Foreign molecules are transported into the cell where they are degraded in the endosome as well. From there, the degraded pathogen interact with the MHC II molecule.
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Major histocompatibility molecules (MHC) are critical for the functioning of the immune system. These proteins are utilized allow for communication between the immune system and the cells. MHC I are utilized to show which cells are in fact part of the body and which are foreign. MHC II are utilized to show the immune system when there is an intruder.
MHC I molecules are derived from chromosome 6. On chromosome 6, there is a specific gene that encodes for the molecule. On the gene, there are 3 locus (A, B, C) which allows for variability in the binding site of the MHC I molecule. The MHC gene is co-dominance and therefore adds to its diversity. During development, the gene is transcribed into MHC I molecules. However, some of these are broken down and react with a particular MHC I molecule. The reaction allows for the MHC I molecule to surface onto the cellular membrane and to self-identify the protein for the cytotoxic T-cell.
After translation, MHC II molecules are transported to the endosome. When a pathogen binds to the proper MHC II binding site, these molecules are then presented to T-Helper cells. In comparison, MHC I molecules interact with endogenous antigens whereas MHC II molecules interact with exogenous antigens.
Based on the passage, which MHC molecule and T-cell is targeted post-organ transplant to avoid rejection of the organ?
Major histocompatibility molecules (MHC) are critical for the functioning of the immune system. These proteins are utilized allow for communication between the immune system and the cells. MHC I are utilized to show which cells are in fact part of the body and which are foreign. MHC II are utilized to show the immune system when there is an intruder.
MHC I molecules are derived from chromosome 6. On chromosome 6, there is a specific gene that encodes for the molecule. On the gene, there are 3 locus (A, B, C) which allows for variability in the binding site of the MHC I molecule. The MHC gene is co-dominance and therefore adds to its diversity. During development, the gene is transcribed into MHC I molecules. However, some of these are broken down and react with a particular MHC I molecule. The reaction allows for the MHC I molecule to surface onto the cellular membrane and to self-identify the protein for the cytotoxic T-cell.
After translation, MHC II molecules are transported to the endosome. When a pathogen binds to the proper MHC II binding site, these molecules are then presented to T-Helper cells. In comparison, MHC I molecules interact with endogenous antigens whereas MHC II molecules interact with exogenous antigens.
Based on the passage, which MHC molecule and T-cell is targeted post-organ transplant to avoid rejection of the organ?
According to the passage, MHC I and cytotoxic t-cells are responsible for identifying the body's own protein. During organ transplant, foreign MHC I molecules are presented into the body. The host's cytotoxic T-cells will recognize these as foreign and will attack.
According to the passage, MHC I and cytotoxic t-cells are responsible for identifying the body's own protein. During organ transplant, foreign MHC I molecules are presented into the body. The host's cytotoxic T-cells will recognize these as foreign and will attack.
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The chemical reaction in the immune system that protects the body from pathogens is a result of antibodies created by which of the following?
The chemical reaction in the immune system that protects the body from pathogens is a result of antibodies created by which of the following?
White blood cells is the correct answer here. After pathogen has entered the body, the antibodies to combat it are created by B cells that are a part of the white blood cells in the human body.
White blood cells is the correct answer here. After pathogen has entered the body, the antibodies to combat it are created by B cells that are a part of the white blood cells in the human body.
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Embryonic stem cells can go on to form any of the three germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm). How can they be defined?
Embryonic stem cells can go on to form any of the three germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm). How can they be defined?
The ability to form any of the three germ layers is known as pluripotency. Totipotent cells, such as the zygote, are able to form an entire organism, multipotent cells are able to form any cell within the same germ layer lineage, and progenitor cells are cells closer to differentiation, often found in adult organisms.
The ability to form any of the three germ layers is known as pluripotency. Totipotent cells, such as the zygote, are able to form an entire organism, multipotent cells are able to form any cell within the same germ layer lineage, and progenitor cells are cells closer to differentiation, often found in adult organisms.
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What type of cell creates free antibodies that then circulate in the bloodstream?
What type of cell creates free antibodies that then circulate in the bloodstream?
Humoral, or B-cell, immunity is associated with the formation of antibodies. Plasma cells are B-lymphocytes that have been differentiated with the help of a helper T-cell. They release antibodies, which are created to respond to a specific pathogen in the body.
Cytotoxic T-cells are also activates by help T-cells, but are involved in cell-mediated immunity rather than humoral immunity. They target infected cells based on antibody tagging. Monocytes are a part of the innate immune response and are not involved in antibody interactions. They primarily differentiate into macrophages, which engage in phagocytosis of pathogens.
Humoral, or B-cell, immunity is associated with the formation of antibodies. Plasma cells are B-lymphocytes that have been differentiated with the help of a helper T-cell. They release antibodies, which are created to respond to a specific pathogen in the body.
Cytotoxic T-cells are also activates by help T-cells, but are involved in cell-mediated immunity rather than humoral immunity. They target infected cells based on antibody tagging. Monocytes are a part of the innate immune response and are not involved in antibody interactions. They primarily differentiate into macrophages, which engage in phagocytosis of pathogens.
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Which leukocyte releases histamine in order to dilate blood vessels and increase blood flow to infected areas?
Which leukocyte releases histamine in order to dilate blood vessels and increase blood flow to infected areas?
Basophils are the least common leukocyte found in the body, but play a key role in the inflammatory response. They contain histamine, which is a potent vasodilator. Upon release, histamine will increase blood flow to infected areas. Mast cells are another immune cell that is involved in histamine release, but are generally localized to various regions of the body rather than found in circulation.
Basophils, mast cells, eosinophils, and neutrophils are all considered granulocytes and are essential cells in the innate immune response. Plasma cells are differentiated B-lymphocytes that are responsible for mass-producing antibodies to a specific antigen.
Basophils are the least common leukocyte found in the body, but play a key role in the inflammatory response. They contain histamine, which is a potent vasodilator. Upon release, histamine will increase blood flow to infected areas. Mast cells are another immune cell that is involved in histamine release, but are generally localized to various regions of the body rather than found in circulation.
Basophils, mast cells, eosinophils, and neutrophils are all considered granulocytes and are essential cells in the innate immune response. Plasma cells are differentiated B-lymphocytes that are responsible for mass-producing antibodies to a specific antigen.
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In what way do eosinophils differ from other innate immune system cells?
In what way do eosinophils differ from other innate immune system cells?
The granulocytes are responsible for numerous functions of innate immunity, from secreting histamine, to phagocytosis, to anti-inflammatory processes. These cells are the basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages (monocytes), and mast cells.
Eosinophils have a more limited role in innate defense than the other granulocytes. They possess only low phagocytic activity, however, they are more specialized to respond to multi-cellular pathogens, such as parasitic worms. Rather than phagocytosing an invading organism, eosinophils function by releasing an arsenal of destructive enzymes and free radicals to ward off the organism. The other granulocytes are specialized for phagocytosis of bacteria, viruses, and cellular debris.
The granulocytes are responsible for numerous functions of innate immunity, from secreting histamine, to phagocytosis, to anti-inflammatory processes. These cells are the basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages (monocytes), and mast cells.
Eosinophils have a more limited role in innate defense than the other granulocytes. They possess only low phagocytic activity, however, they are more specialized to respond to multi-cellular pathogens, such as parasitic worms. Rather than phagocytosing an invading organism, eosinophils function by releasing an arsenal of destructive enzymes and free radicals to ward off the organism. The other granulocytes are specialized for phagocytosis of bacteria, viruses, and cellular debris.
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